The Legacy of the First World War
- 11 million Germans fought in the war.
- Nearly 2 million troops lost their lives, while 4 million sustained injuries.
- Wilhelm II received instructions to abdicate on 9/11/18 in order to restore power in Germany.
→ Many people were upset at Kaiser.
- As Germany lost the war, there was a power vacuum and no leader.
Political Parties in Germany
- KPD: Communist Party - Far Left
- SPD: Social Democrats - Centre/Left.
- ZP: Centre Party - Centre
- DVP: German People's Party - Centre/Right
- NSDAP (Nazi Party): Far Right
→ Many parties hard to come to a decision with huge divisions in opinions.
→ Lots of huge divisions in opinions. It is challenging for a single party to secure the majority of votes.
→ In times of extreme economic distress, people voted for extreme parties to ensure action.
Declaration of a Republic
Reichstag: German parliament building.
Scheidemann, a leading member of the SPD (the biggest party), said there was a new German Republic outside the Reichstag and appealed for a peaceful transition to the new regime.
The Council of People's Representatives
- The SPD, which was in power prior to World War II, had to move swiftly to establish the new republic in order to prevent communists from taking control.
- On 9/11/18, Chancellor (of Kaiser) Baden handed over his office to Ebert, who is now the leader of the SPD.
- 10/11/18 Ebert made an agreement with General Groener for the army to work with the government to keep communists out of power.
- 10/11/18 Ebert also suspended the old Reichstag and chose 6 moderate politicians to form the Council of People's Representatives.
→ He would temporarily lead Germany's government until the formation of a constitution.
Armistice
- On 11/11/18, Ebert's representative signed the Armistice, and the Germans reacted badly as the Kaiser built.
→ Due to nationalistic sentiments in Germany, people denigrated and despised Ebert, experienced low morale, and felt helpless as they surrendered.
- The Treaty of Versailles would become a permanent burden to the new Republic.
Setting up the Weimar Republic
- Ebert enlisted civil servants to assist in maintaining state regulations, ensuring the collection of state taxes, and ensuring the smooth operation of state schools.
- Ensured the 50-officer army wouldn't be reformed, so Groener kept their ranks.
- Ebert reassured leaders of industry that the new Republic wouldn't confiscate land or factories and that there would be no state control over private industries. He made sure businesses and the economy continued operating.
- The new republic promised Carl Legien, the new trade union leader, that it would work to establish an 8-hour working day.
→ These were all efforts to increase people's compliance in the new republic.
→ Despite Ebert's efforts, some extreme political parties remained dissatisfied, leaving Germany on the brink of anarchy.
However, Ebert's fragile control gave him ample time to agree on a new constitution for the Republic.
The National Assembly
- The job was to create a new constitution for Germany.
- 19/01/19: Elections took place.
→ 82% of the electorate voted; SPD won 40% and ZP won 20%.
- Due to the SPD's failure to secure a majority, they were forced to share power with other parties, resulting in the formation of a coalition government.
- The National Assembly met for the first time in February 1919.
We had to meet in Weiner, which is 250 km away, due to the unrest in Berlin.
It took six months to come to an agreement because there were 29 parties involved, making it challenging to establish a majority.
The Weimar Constitution
Strengths of the Constitution
1. Democratic (Article):
→ Women are now able to vote for the first time.
→ The Reichstag was elected under a proportional representation system, where even smaller parties had a share of seats, with one representative for every 60,000 votes.
2. Checks and balances:
→ The Constitution made sure no person/group could have too much power.
For instance, the Reichstag could postpone the implementation of new laws unless it overrules them with a 2/3 mamajority.
→ local governments - Landers in each of the 918 regions of Germany that controlled key services like police, courts, and schools.
Weaknesses in the Constitution
1) No single party possessed a clear majority, thereby necessitating the formation of coalitions by several parties.
→ Coalition partners had to compromise due to the lack of clear and strong policies.
→ Governments frequently argued—9 coalition governments between 1919 and 1923.
2) Weaknesses in a crisis: coalitions caused problems when swift and clear decisions were needed.
Article 48 - In a crisis, the chancellor can ask the president to pass a necessary law by decree without the support of the Reichstag. This creates an opportunity for the undermining of government and the strengthening of democracy.
→ By 1930, the Chancellor regularly relied on the president to pass laws (not the Reichstag), bypassing democratic rules.
The constitution appeared feeble, leading individuals to believe that a single leader outperformed an elected parliament.
3) Based on division and violence
→ Even though it gave ultimate power to the electorate, the republic wasn't really people's choice.
→ During the German revolution, the government relied on the army to subdue public riots in Berlin.
→ Several parties elected to the 'Reichstag', such as nationalists and communists, openly opposed and despised the new constitution, giving voice to their enemies.
→ The Weimar Republic was created out of violence without public enthusiasm and was opposed by extremists.
Unpopularity in the Republic
- On 28/06/19, they signed the Treaty of Versailles. Most Germans thought they'd be able to negotiate the terms of a peace treaty, but it was a diktat.
→ VR was the intended recipient of the agreement, which was not subject to negotiation.
→ Germans blamed Ebert for signing it because they lost; they shouldn't have to deal with many consequences.
1) War Guilt
- Article 231 stated Germany had caused the war, which is why they had to pay reparations and reduce armed forces so they wouldn't start another war.
- This humiliated Germany, as they were not solely the reason for the war, making them feel weak and controlled.
2) Reparations
- The Allies never wanted Germany's economy to recover, so they fixed it at 66 billion pounds in 1921.
- Felt vulnerable, weak, and upset as they were nationalistic, and this would greatly impact the economy (causing depression, debt, and hyperinflation).
- Higher taxes already meant there wasn't enough (£ or war efforts), which meant poor Germans survived, which meant Germany had enough money for Germans to secure large loans from the USA.
3) Germany lost all its colonies
- The Allies received mandates to manage their 11 colonies in Africa and Asia.
- This meant that Germany struggled even more economically due to fewer resources and increased trade.
- Lost all power and German influence across the globe → No longer felt security and became a pariah nation—no respect.
4) German military strength cut and Deutches Heer (the stab in the back)
- Amy limited the navy to 6 battleships, 6 cruisers, 12 destroyers, and 12 torpedo boats—no submarines allowed—and destroyed the rest of the fleet.
- No air force allowed—the existing one was destroyed.
- The Rhineland underwent demilitarisation, and Allied troops remained stationed there until 1930.
- Germany experienced a loss of strength, feeling weak and vulnerable, with no means to defend itself in the event of an attack by another nation.
- The army was very angry and lost faith in the government as Ebert promised to reform the army early.
5) Germany lost land
- Alsace-Lorraine lost to France.
- Prussia divided Germany into two parts and handed it to Poland.
West Prussia was divided into many small areas.
- In the meantime, Germany experienced a population decline and a significantly reduced workforce, making it unable to sustain its economy.
- A physically divided nation made it difficult to manage and communicate, which further complicated the country's trade.
Right and left wings
- The extreme right-wing aimed to re-establish a strong government with a formidable army, similar to the 'Kaiser.'
→ Supported fascism, championed capitalism, law and order, and traditional values in society.
The nation's interests often take precedence over those of the individual.
→ DNVP was the main right-wing party in 1919.
- The extreme left wing advocated for popular control over Germany.
→ Wanted to abolish capitalism.
Internationalists have stressed the importance of cooperation.
→ KPD was the main left-wing party in 1919.
Challenges from left and right in 'Reichstag'
- Three main moderate parties held more than 77 seats in the National Assembly.
- However, the 05/06/20 elections limited their representation in the new 'Reichstag' to 45%.
→ Smaller socialists divided the 20% of seats held by the extreme left and right parties in 1920 to form majority coalitions.
- Extremist politicians constantly attacked moderate parties in the 'Reichstag', making it difficult for them to form majority coalitions for most of the 1920s.
Spartacist Revolt: Left-wing uprising
- The Soviet Union supported and generously funded KPO, which boasted 83 daily newspapers and 400,000 members.
- The Spartakist League, a group of extreme socialists from the USPD, supported communists. Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht led the 'Spartakists,' backed by communists.
- On 04/01/19, Ebert sacked police chief in Berlin, Emil Eichhorn, who was popular with the workers. The following day, thousands of workers protested in the streets.
- 'Spartakists' saw this as their chance to undermine the government and called for an uprising and general strike in Berlin.
- 06/01/19 05: Over 100,000 workers took to the streets, seizing government newspapers and telegraph offices, as the Weimar government began to lose control of the capital.
The Freikorps
- The Freikorps (German armed forces) were in no shape to put the revolt down alone so soon after the war.
- Following their release from the army, thousands of soldiers returned to Germany in November 1918, retaining their weapons.
- Many were right-wing and strongly opposed to communism, so Chancellor Ebert ordered Reichswehr officers to organise these demobilised soldiers into "Freikorps" units.
- The estimated number of Freikorps was 250,000 men by March 1919.
- As the revolt grew, Ebert turned the Freikorps on unarmed rioters.
By 13/01/19, results were driven off the streets, and on 16/01/19, Luxemburg and Liebknecht were arrested and killed by Freikorps.
→ Left-wing communist rebellion had been suppressed.
The Spartacist Revolt posed a significant threat to Ebert due to its support for communism. Based in Berlin, the most populous city, they had the potential to garner more supporters.
The swift handling of the situation eliminated any threat. Based in Berlin, it can't gain as much support since people in Berlin have different views from those outside Berlin. Obtaining five points of support does not ensure success.
The Kapp Putsch: Right-wing uprising
- By 1920, Ebert's government was struggling to control the Freikorps.
- In March 1920, the disbanded and unemployed Freikorps unite near Berlin and rebel against the Republic.
- 5000 men marched on Berlin when Ebert ordered the head of the Reichswehr (general Seek) to stop them; he said he wouldn't fire upon his own people.
- The rebels soon controlled Berlin, and Wolfgang Happ was the figurehead leader. They invited the kaiser to return and declared a new government of Germany.
- Members of the real government fled to Stuttgart, preparing for the inevitable. They were unable to put the revolt down by force, so they urged people to not cooperate.
go on strike.
- Workers obliged, as they were socialist and had no desire to see Kaiser again. Essential services ceased, and Berlin came to a complete standstill.
- After four days, Tapp realized he couldn't govern and fled—only to face arrest. The rebellion collapsed. The Weimar minister returned.
Ongoing Political Violence 1919-23
- A series of political assassinations occurred.
1) Hugg Haase - One of Ebert's counsel of People's Rep was murdered in 1919.
2) In August 1921, the Allies shot and killed Matthias Erzberger, a politician who had signed a surrender.
3) The murder of Walther Rathenau, the Weimar foreign minister, occurred in June 1922.
- Between 1919 and 1922, there were 22 political murders, mainly of left-wing/moderate parties.
- Not a single right-wing murderer was convicted and executed, while 10 left-wing assassins were, and 4 judges were sympathetic to the right wing and condemned Weimar.
Private Armies
- Most political parties hired armed men to guard their meetings and primarily recruited unemployed ex-soldiers.
- The KPD established a private army of Red Fire Fighters.
- The DNVP was supported by steel helmets.
- The SPD is represented by a Black Red Gold flag.
- Initially, the purpose of these private, political armies was protection, but their presence at even peaceful political meetings and marches escalated into violence.
The Kapp Putsch posed a threat as it sparked a widespread strike, exacerbating an already severe economic crisis and hindering Germany's ability to fulfill essential daily tasks and fulfill its reparations obligations.
However, the rebellion only lasted 4 days before collapsing, indicating its lack of strength. Women didn't like Freckones as they brought back Kaiser and liked Ebert more. Didn't spread, not a huge threat.
French Occupation of the Ruhr
- The Ruhr was the main industrial area in Germany.
- The war depleted Germany's gold reserves, leaving the government bankrupt. T of V deprived Germany of wealth-earning areas, such as coalfields in Silesia.
→ Germany was unable to continue making its reparation payments.
- When Germany failed to send coal to France from the Ruhr coal fields in 1922, the French sent troops there in January 1923.
- The French confiscated raw materials, manufactured goods, and industrial machinery. Workers went on strike, and the French brought in their own workers.
- This severely damaged the German economy, as the Ruhr region housed numerous factories and held 80% of Germany's coal, iron, and steel reserves. This led to a rise in debts and unemployment, exacerbated the shortage of goods, and resulted in significant wealth loss.
- The Germans harboured a deep-seated resentment towards the French, but they also harboured a deep-seated hatred towards WR's inaction, despite their inability to stop.
Why did hyperinflation occur?
- Shortages of goods → Increased prices of demand.
- Unemployment and failing factors: Less tax; the government needed this money to pay off debts.
- During 1919-23, income (government) was only 1/4 of what it needed to be.
- The government printed more money. By 1923, the government had 300 paper mills and 2000 printing shops for banknotes.
- Initially, this made the payment of reparations easier, but it also made inflation worse.
- As prices increased, the printing of more money led to further price increases. By 1923, prices had reached unprecedented levels of hyperinflation.
- Prices of a loaf of bread:
1919 = 1 mark
1922 = 100 marks
1923 = 200,000 billion marks
Who benefitted from hyperinflation?
- People with jobs continued to earn more money.
- Individuals who took out loans or had debt were able to repay it at a reduced cost due to the decrease in its value.
- Rich businessmen have the potential to take over small, bankrupt companies.
- People who hoarded goods and sold them for a large profit as prices went up.
- Foreign visitors benefitted as the value of their own currency rose against the German mark, enabling them to purchase more with their money.
Who suffered from hyperinflation?
- There were individuals who relied solely on their savings or pensions, treating their money as if it held no value.
- The middle class suffered the most, as the destruction of their savings and businesses left them without any valuable money.
Other effects of hyperingation
- Normal living became impossible—printing presses couldn't produce enough money. People had to transport bundles of money in baskets and even wheelbarrows.
Many workers received two pay cheques a day, enabling them to purchase goods before prices escalated once more. Some people had to raid shops for food.
- Everyone suffered from shortages as German marks became worthless for importing goods.
→ 1918: £1 worth of foreign goods equals 20 man-hours.
→ One unit was worth 20 billion marks in November 1923.
- Foreign suppliers refused to accept marks for goods, so imports dried up, and shortages of food and other goods got worse for everyone.
Stresemann
- In August 1923, Ebert appointed Gustav Stresemann as his new chancellor and foreign secretary.
- Stresemann resigned the chancellorship in Nov 1923 but remained foreign secretary until 1929.
- His goal was to stabilise the economy and regain respect for Germany in foreign affairs so that Germans would be happier with the WR.
→ This would help reduce support for extremist parties.
New Currency
- In November 1923, Stresemann set up a new state-owned bank, the Retenbank, which issued new currency: Restenman.
- German industrial plants strictly limited the supply of Rentenmarks, tying their value to the price of gold. People trusted agricultural land because it held true value.
- Later, in August 1924, Germany gave control of the currency to a newly independent national bank, Reichsbanu, and renamed it the Reichsmam. Germany's gold reserves backed it.
- Germany's currency gained trust both domestically and internationally. So hyperinflation ended.
→ There is a more robust foundation for German businesses to enhance their employment opportunities.
The Dawes Plan, 1924
- The Dawes plan agreed to this plan:
→ We have temporarily reduced reparations to 50 million per year.
→ US banks agreed to provide loans to the German industry, which requested a loan of £25 million between 1924 and 1930.
- This assured Allies their payments.
- The French also agreed to leave the Ruhr.
- This improved WR's economy and boosted working and middle-class Germans.
→ Industrial output doubled between 1923 and 1928, passing pre-war levels.
→ Employment and trade increased, and income from taxation increased.
- The Germans received reassurance, while WR gained political strength.
- Additionally, the fragile economy relied on loans from the United States.
The Young Plan
- August 1929 saw the introduction of allies.
- The reparation debt was reduced to £2.2 billion, and Germany was given 59 years to pay £52 million annually.
→ This created a virtuous cycle of economic growth.
- The French also agreed to leave the Rhineland in 1930.
- 85% of those who voted were in favor of the Young Plan in a German referendum.
Locarno Pact
- 01/12/25 Stresemann signed the Locarno Pact, a treaty between Germany, France, Britain, Italy, and Belgium.
- Unlike T of V, Germany was not subject to its imposition.
→ Rhineland would be permanently demilitarised.
→ The five powers agreed to open talks about the League of Nations and Germany's membership.
→ Germany accepted the new 1919 border with France, and France promised peace with Germany.
- This was beneficial as it reduced the likelihood of war in Europe.
→ In 1926, Stresemann received the Nobel Peace Prize.
- WR treated Germany equally, boosting its prestige and boosting the confidence of many Germans in moderate political parties that backed Stresemann.
The League of Nations
- In September 1926, Stresemann persuaded other major powers to accept Germany as a member.
→ Was given a place on the League of Nations council and took the most important decisions of the league.
- As Germany re-established itself as an international power, there was an increase in confidence in WR and a boost to moderate parties supporting Stresemann.
- However, to some, the league represented the hated T of V.
Kellog-Briand Pact
- Signed in August 1928 by Germany and 61 other countries, it promised that states would not use war to achieve foreign policy aims.
→ Step forward for Germany in foreign affairs.
- Shows Germany was included in the main powers (unlike T of V) and WR was seen as a stable, respected state.
- There was a surge in trust in the ability of moderate parties to fortify Germany.
- However, not all Germans agreed, as it did nothing to remove the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which hugely restricted Germany.
The impact of domestic politics
- Moderate political parties have increased their support for extremist parties.
- May 1924: Moderate parties = 50%, Extremist parties = 40%.
- May 1928: Moderate parties = 58%, Extremist parties = 28%.
- Paul von Hindenburg replaced Ebert in 1925, giving WR a strong figurehead and reassuring the middle class.
- Stresemann died on 03/10/29. The loss of his moderate policies was a huge blow to WR.
Women at Leisure
- 1920s women's greater financial independence.
- Not all Germans were fond of new women, as many men and few women believed that the growing equality and independence of women threatened traditional social paths such as motherhood, family, and good housekeeping. Some men are also threatened by women.
- Birth rate fell:
→ 1913-18: 128 live births per 1000 women.
→ 1925-30: 80/1000
→ People felt Germany needed women to be mothers.
- Divorce rate rose:
→ 1913: 27 divorces per year/100,000.
→ 1929: 60
- Many people believed that Germany needed women as wives.
- Women had more opportunities as new female sports clubs and social clubs sprang up.
- Some people even blamed women's promiscuity instability in Germany in the 1920s.
- Differences in attitudes towards women led to numerous social tensions in the workplace.
Women in Politics
- In November 1918, the government had the right to vote and stand in elections.
- In 1932, the Reichstag elected 112 women, accounting for nearly 10% of its members.
- Article 10G of the Constitution:
→ Women had equal rights as men.
→ Marriage was an equal partnership on both sides.
→ Women should be able to enter all professions on an equal basis with men.
Women in Work
- By 1918, 75% of women were employed, frequently performing tasks that were previously exclusively performed by men.
- However, by 1925, only 36% of women held pre-war jobs.
- Article 109 did not guarantee equal treatment for women.
→ Paid average 33% less than men.
→ After marriage, one typically gives up one's will.
→ Few people entered high-status professions; by 1933, there were only 36 female judges in Germany.
→ There was also some progress:
→ In more liberal professions, such as medicine and education, women made more progress. The number of female doctors doubled between 1925 and 1932.
- In the industry, trade unions were heavily dominated by men, which led them to oppose equal pay for women, particularly because married women had an advantage at home.
Art
- Painters like Otto Dix often painted expressionist versions of scenes from German life, which were very critical to German society.
- The changes in art were quite extreme, so not everybody agreed.
- People believed they should have spent their money on something else.
Architecture
- The Bauhaus had an influence on some architects, such as Mendelsohn.
- When asked to design the famous Einstein Tower, he created a futuristic tower that resembled a rocket, unlike anything seen before.
- Right-wing nationalists are opposed.
Cinema:
- The new genres (horror) and innovative (sci-fi) films, such as 'Metropolis' directed by Fritz Lang and 'The Cabinet of Dr. Caligan', have been released.
- By 1932, there were 3,800 German cinemas showing films with sound.
- Free movies - No censorship
- Opposition arose because many films were political, and many people didn't agree with them.
Party Policy - The 25-Point Program
1) We demand the union of all Germans in a greater Germany (North support).
2) We demand equality of rights for the German people in their dealings with other nations. (North support)
3) We demand land and colonies to feed our people and settle our surplus population. (North support)
4) Only individuals of German descent can be considered members of the nation. (North support)
7) We demand that the state's primary duty be to promote the work and livelihood of its citizens. (South support)
9) All citizens shall have equal rights and duties. (South support)
17) We demand a law to take from owners any land needed for the common good as people. (South support)
22) We demand the creation of a people's army. (South support)
25) We demand the creation of a controlled, strong state power for the Reich. (North support)
More Party Policy
- NSDAP was/became a party of protest and was strongly opposed to:
1) Weimar politicians who deposed Kaiser made peace and signed treaties.
2) Democracy: Many believed it to be weak and opposed the Weimar constitution.
3) They were blamed by Jews for undermining the German economy.
More on Hitler's Personal Appeal
- Rehearsed his speeches carefully.
→ The story started slowly and quietly, gradually building up tension to frantic levels, which were very persuasive.
- Gestures play a crucial role in engaging his audience.
- He possessed publicity photos and paintings that depicted him as an orator.
- Between Nov 1919 and Nov 1920, there were 46 party gatherings; on 31 of them, Hitler was a star speaker.
- As Hitler's appeal spread, the number of members increased to 1000 by June 1920 and 3000 by the end of the same year.
Party Organisation
- By 1920, Hitler was Drexler's right-hand man and head of propaganda.
→ Hitler changed his name to NSDAP.
→ NSDAP adopted the 'swastika' logo, which included a straight-armed paIt was effortless to differentiate NSDAP from other minor nationalist factions.
→ In January 1920, the DAP established a permanent office in Munich, selecting Rudolf Hess, a wealthy academic and friend of Schissler from the army, as the party's first full-time administrator.
→ More organised party meetings and better-advertised DAP members led to an increase in funding.
→ In December 1920, they raised enough funds to buy the first newspaper, the People's Observer, for 18,000 marks. In less than a year, Bavaria and other parts of Germany widely distributed 17,000 copies of NSDAP.
Party Leadership
- In July 1921, Hitler and Drexler engaged in a leadership contest, which Hitler ultimately won.
- To solidify his position, he surrounded himself with supporters who could assist him in leading the party.
→ Rudolf Hess became Hitler's deputy.
→ Herman Goering" is a young, dashing, and wealthy World War I fighter pilot.
→ Former soldiers hold "Ernst Rohm" in high regard as a fearsome former army officer.
Role of SA
- Formed in August 1921.
- The SA was a private group that operated like a military force.
- Paraded streets in showing as force.
- Approximately 800 people attended the event, impressed by their sense of power and organisation.
- Used to control crowds at NSDAP meetings and subdue any opposition with violence.
- They also targeted the opposition's meetings for disruption.
- Hitler selected members of the SA to serve as his personal bodyguards, using them as shock troops and strong individuals.
Hitler gains full control of NSDAP
- At the January 1922 party conference, Hitler had complete control over the NSDAP.
- Persuaded members to give up their right to elect their leader.
- Hitler's now-dictated policy.
In November 1923, Hitler initiated the Munich Putsch, an armed uprising with the aim of toppling WR.
Long-Term Causes:
- Between 1918 and 1923, numerous grievances arose, including the Treaty of Versailles. Some Germans harbored deep resentment towards WR, while others supported the NSDAP more strongly.
- Leaders of the Bavarian state government such as Gustav Von Kahr were strong critics of the WR, shared some of the views of the NSDAP, and did not object to SA violence, which resulted in less opposition.
→ By 1923, the NSDAP had 50k members.
Medium-Term Causes:
- Fascists (the Italian party) influenced the NSDAP from 1921 to 1922.
- In 1922, Fascists led their paramilitary forces (roughly SR) in a "March on Rome," compelling the democratic government of Italy to recognise him as their new leader.
→ Hitler found inspiration in the belief that if Mussolini could succeed, so could he.
Short-Term Causes:
- In 1923, when hyperinflation was at its peak, people were angry at WR, leading to increased support for NSDAP.
- 1923 - The French took control of the Ruhr.
The national humiliation (NSDAP's vs. nationalist outlook) and the failure of WR to address issues led to an increase in support for NSDAP.
Events of the Munich Putsch:
- 08/11/23 Bavarian government officials were in a meeting in a beer hall (the Burgerbrau Keller) in Munich.
- Von Kahr, Von Seisser (head of Bavarian police), and Von Lossow were there.
- Hitler burst in with 600 members of the SA. He shot the ceiling, announced that he was taking over Bavaria, and then marched to Berlin to overthrow the Wehrmacht.
→ Ludendorff (Hitler's friend and a famous army general) would become leader of the army.
- SA seized control of the local police and army headquarters, remaining faithful to Kahr, Seisser, and Lossow. Hitler and Ludendorff declared their backing, but they acquiesced only reluctantly under duress.
- The main army barracks were loyal to the government.
On the morning of 9/11/23, Ludendorff released Kahr, Seisser, and Lossow due to the relaxation of Hitler's claim. Lossow also withdrew his support.
→ As Hitler and their supporters gathered on the streets of Munich, they prepared to launch an attack, but the Bavarian police stopped them, and the Bavarian police withdrew support.
- Hitler eventually had to flee into hiding. 16 NSDAP supporters, 4 policemen, and all major Nazis were arrested as a result.
- Most of the House's supporters no longer support it.
- Hitler served nine months of his five-year prison sentence.
Impact:
Hitler wrote “Mein Kampf,” outlining ideology.
- Hitler learnt that in order to legally maintain political power, they needed to use a group known as the P-Shock Troop.
- Rebellion abolished into chaos. Most scrambled for refuge.
- They arrested Ludendorff, Rohm, and Streicher.
- Other notes: Hitler hid in a friend’s house—Ernst Hanfstangel (south of Munich)—but was found and arrested on 11/11/23.
Consequences of Munich Putsch
Short term:
Hitler was sentenced to prison for five years but was released after only nine months.
Mein Kampf
Racist views:
- The German race (Aryan race) was destined to rule the world.
- There was a Jewish conspiracy to undermine Aryan rule.
- Jews planned to weaken the Aryan race by intermarriage and taking over German industry and moderate political parties.
Other ideas:
- Nationalism → Lebensraum: Germany needed to invade Russian land east of Germany to defeat communists and provide land for farmers.
- Socialism uses the wealth of industry and land to benefit Germany and its working people.
- Totalitarianism involves the abandonment of democracy and the transfer of power to the state.
- Traditional German values → Strong family values, clear male and female roles, a strong work ethic, Christian morality, and old-style German art, music, and theatre.
Party Re-organisation
Hitler was able to relaunch the NSDAP at a meeting in Munich on February 27, 1924.
NSDAP Headquarters
- Munich serves as the central hub of the party.
- Schwarz appointed Bouhler as treasurer and as secretary, ensuring the NSDAP was well organized and financed.
- He managed the government as if it were a mini-state, with Hitler serving as the leader and overseeing all departments.
- The German Woman's Order also featured new sections.
- Younger people: National Socialist German Students’ League and Hitler Youth for 14–18-year-olds (plus a school pupils’ league).
- It prepares the party for long-term battles in elections and helps it garner votes.
Creation of a National Nazi Party
- Hitler divided the rest of Germany into 35 Gaue. Each Gau had a leader (Gauleiter), but he rarely appointed them because he relied on the most capable leaders to rise to the top, much like he did in the DAP.
→ Gregor Strasser-Gauleiter in the north of Germany and Joseph Goebbels rose to prominence in Rheinland.
→ The NSDAP has expanded its influence in every part of Germany to build support.
- To pay for this, Hitter raised money from wealthy industrialists who shared his nationalistic views. Eventually, Hitter secured large loans from prominent businessmen such as Bosch.
SS/Schutzstaffel
- In 1930, SA expanded to 400,000 members.
- Munich Putsch taught Hitler the importance of personal bodyguards; they didn't trust the SA because they were too violent, and instead became loyal to Röhm, which led him to establish the SS.
- SS 1st nun by Julius Schreck but soon placed them under Heinrich Himmler, a more senior member of the NSDAP.
- Himmler expanded the SS to 3000 by 1930.
- People feared the SS for their menacing black uniforms in 1932.
→ Fear bolstered control and intimidated anyone who dared to challenge Hitler.
Bamberg Conference (1926)
- The local powers of Qualeiter were causing a split in the NSDAP because some party activists (e.g., Goebbels & Strasser) were based in northern industrial areas, where they emphasised the socialist part of national socialism.
- Other party leaders in Southern Germany, such as Hitler and Baran, emphasised nationalism.
- Hitler called a national conference to address the split. The conference took place in Bamberg, Bavaria, where southern party leaders constituted the majority.
- While Northern leaders, such as Strasser, were permitted to express their opinions, Hitler clearly articulated his own viewpoints (speaking for five hours).
- The socialist wing of the party bears a resemblance to communism.
→ The weakening of socialist principles gave Hitler greater authority to implement any policies.
→ Hitter's control of the party was now clear and showed everyone he'd abolish democracy when in power.
Reasons for Limited Support (1923-1929)
- Stresemann's new currency, the Daves and Young Plans, restored economic stability, thereby cutting off support for extremist parties like the NSDAP. Since WR is working well, there is no need to abolish it.
- Locarno Pact, League, and Kellogg Briand gave Germany no reason to abolish more status because of support for nationalist parties like NSPAL.
- In 1925, Hindenburg assumed the presidency of WR. As a war hero, he bolstered WR's popularity and eroded the support of those seeking independence.
rid of it.
- The NSDAP won practically no support from German working classes in big cities; while the economy was strong, few people voted for the NSDAP.
In the 1928 general elections, Naris only garnered 17% of the vote in Berlin, while Rechr only secured 12 seats, making them the 7th largest Reichstag party.
The Wall Street Crash in the USA (Great Depression)
- In October 1929, share prices began to fall on the Wall Street Stock Exchange in New York.
- Falling shares result in a decrease in the value of people's investments.
Individuals hurriedly sold their shares to prevent further declines.
- On 24/10/29, 13 million shares were sold; the panic of selling caused the prices to drop.
→ Shares worth $20,000 in the morning were $1000 at the end of the day.
→ Within a week, investors lost $4000 million.
Economic effects in Germany
- Caused a banking crisis German banks were major investors in shares on the US stock exchange and suffered huge losses, to the point where Germans feared they wouldn't have access to money in their bank accounts.
→ In 1929, the German Givil Servant bank collapsed, resulting in the loss of many people's savings.
- The collapse of German banking led to the downfall of industry, as banks required cash to disburse the money their accountholders.
- Therefore, banks demanded the return of the money they had sent to businesses in both industry and agriculture
- Without this money, industries and farms were forced to reduce production or shut down entirely, leading to the collapse of the economy.
Unemployment
- When industries and farms shut down or scaled back, workers became unemployed.
- German companies that sold their goods abroad experienced a decline in sales due to the global economic crisis, leading to an increase in the number of unemployed workers.
Fall in industrial output
1929–1930 = 10% fall
1929–1931 = 30% fall
1929–1932 = 40% fall
Unemployment
- Sep 19 = 291.3 million
- Sep 1931 = 4.3 million
- Sep 1932 = 5.1 million
- Jan 1933 = 6.1 million
This group encompassed 40% of all industrial workers, 50% of Germans aged between 16 and 30, and 60% of university graduates.
Impact on people
- Unemployed: As the number increased, the government's inability to provide unemployment benefits worsened the situation for these individuals.
- Savers: Some individuals invested their savings in shares, which, in the event of a crash, would leave them without any means of support if they became unemployed.
- Workers: Wages increased, but due to job desperation, employers slashed wages. In 1932, real wages were only 70% of 1928 levels.
- Homeless: The inability to afford rent led to the emergence of shantytowns and makeshift houses among the homeless population. The unemployed roamed the streets, seeking work or food. There was a 24% increase in arrests for theft in Berlin, indicating that people were extremely desperate.
Following the Wall Street Crash, the USA found itself unable to continue lending Germany money, leading to the suspension of future payments and the demand for repayment of some previous loans. Since Germany was dependent on loans from the USA (Dawes Plan), the German economy was in big trouble.
Failure to deal with unemployment
- WR failed the population.
- Heinrich Brining, the leader of the ZP (Centre Party), served as chancellor from 1930 to 1982.
→ The Reichstag rejected the policies in July 1930, despite initially proposing higher taxes to fund unemployment benefits and then introducing fixed time units to make payments more affordable.
- Failure by moderate parties to work together (SPD leader Müller refused to support Brüning's policies) made the Reichstag powerless to policy.
- The Reichstag met 94 times in 1930, 41 times in 1931, and only 13 times in 1982.
- Brining was forced to use Article 48 for governance, relying on 44 decrees in 1931 and 66 in 1982. undermined confidence further in WR.
- Bruning resigned in 1932 after losing control over the Reichstag, the economy, and the streets.
Rise in support for KPD - The KPD saw a rise in support and became the largest communist party outside the Soviet Union by 1932.
- Support for WPD increased significantly among the working party class in large towns.
1. Growing unemployment
2. Falling wages
- People saw KPD as the only party that could defend their jobs and wages against employers and landowners.
- Savers followed KPD because they feared they would go bankrupt.
- Homeless people hacked WR for the Great Depression and became desperate, so they followed KPD as they'd look after the poor and share wealth.
- Womers turned to KPD for wages.
- Businessmen turned to WPD out of fear of their company going bankrupt.
Rise in support for NSDAP
- Support for Nazis grew quicker than for communists.
→ The prospect of the KPD gaining power terrified the German middle and upper classes because they would suffer from state confiscation of their land and businesses.
- As support grew for KPD, the middle and upper classes became more likely to vote for NSDAP, as Hitler was the best defense against communism, which they feared.
General Reichstag elections (number of seats)
- May 1928: SPD = 152, NSDA P = 12, KPD = 54
- Sep 1930: SPD = 143, NSDAP 107, KPD = 77
- July 1932: SPD = 133, NSDAP = 230, KPD = 89
INCREASED NAZI SUPPORT
Appeal of Hitler and SA:
- Through his campaigns, people perceived Hitler as a strong leader capable of restoring Germany, a feat that WR did not achieve.
- The campaign received funding from wealthy businessmen.
- SA used NSDAP to disrupt opposition parties and make them seem organised and reliable.
- Limitations of support: In a clash with the KPD near Hamburg, 18 people lost their lives.
Big business:
- Wealthy businessmen powered money into "party propaganda." Had their own newspaper against KPD.
- Limitations: The NSDAP and other moderate parties were unable to solve Germany's economic problems; instead, they had to convince businesses that they could resolve these issues.
Working-class support:
- Policies that appeal to workers tend to garner more votes.
- The National Socialist German Workers' Party, as its name suggests, advocated for the upholding of traditional German values and a stronger Germany.
Middle-class support:
- They viewed Hitler as a resilient leader who aided in their recovery from the Great Depression and could shield them from communism.
- NSDAP reverts to traditional German values, as indicated by its name.
Farmers:
- Hitler reversed the policy of confiscating all private land (25 points), except for Jews, with the assurance that he would protect them from communists who would take their land.
Young people:
- Easily influenced and open to new ideas - Sound NSDAP exciting and found Hitler's speeches promising and interesting.
-Women:
- Made special propaganda for women, saying how rooting for them was best for the country and families.
- Limitations: Initially, women expressed reluctance to cast their votes.
NSDAP believed women should have traditional household roles.
GENERAL ELECTIONS: (1928-1932)
- The SPD's support decreases, resulting in fewer seats in the Reichstag between 1928 and 1932.
- The NSDP experienced a significant increase: from 12 seats in 1928 to 230 in July 1932.
- KPD experienced a minor increase, significantly less than that of NSDAP. This was because, due to the economic crash, people didn't want to share more (especially the middle and upper classes).
GENERAL SUPPORT AND UNITY:
- By 1930, NSDAP membership: 300k Hitler promised to make Germany powerful again.
- Many supported anti-Semitic and anti-communist views, using them as scapegoats.
- Propaganda proved to be highly effective in garnering significant support.
Aften focused on regional issues and targeted specific groups as the electorate made people feel valued, stealing votes from smaller parties.
1929:
- October 3, 1929: Stresemann dies. Weimar suffers a loss of support as people no longer trust him.
- USA Wall Street crash: After the stock market crashed, the USA couldn't afford to lend Germany money anymore.
→ Germany relied on US loans for economic recovery under the Dawes Plan.
→ With US aid, the German economy collapsed, leading to the closure of factories and the bankruptcy of banks. These banks suffered financial losses due to their significant investments in US stocks.
→ Weimar's popularity is increasing due to mass unemployment.
→ September 1929: 1.3 million unemployed
→ September 1932: 5.1 million unemployed
→ January 1933: 6.1 million unemployed
(Hitler comes to power.)
PEOPLE:
- The rich turned to the NSDAP as they'd suffered under communism (KPD).
- Savers: Lots of savings invested in shares, nothing to fall back on → following extremist parties in gear of becoming bankrupt.
- Workers: Increased taxes lead to lower pay, which in turn results in low production.
→ Wages in 1932 = 70% of wages in 1928 → People turned to KPDger wages and NSDAP.
- Homeless: Could no longer afford rent—homeless. Shantytowns built boredom—and violence.
HOW HITLER BECOMES CHANCELLOR (1932-33) - Rise to Power
- In January 1932, there were 6 million unemployed people; Hitler took advantage of the depression to promise better things.
- At the beginning of 1932, Bruning faced significant economic challenges and struggled to ensure the successful implementation of the Weimar Constitution.
- In March 1932, Hitler contested Hindenburg for the presidency and lost, with the KPD scoring 14%, Hindenburg scoring 47.6%, and Hitler scoring 30%.
- In April 1932, Hitler attempted to secure a majority reelection by renting an aeroplane, but he only managed to secure a 36% majority.
- Due to unpopular ideas, Bruning resigned in May 1932, and von Papen (30/06) took over as head of the new, undemocratic Hindenburg government. No Reichstag; rule by decree. → They allowed the NSDAP into government; they had to rely on them, thinking they could control them. The Cabinet of Barons, consisting of 80 undemocratic nominees, supported a right-wing coalition to pass laws. ass laws. This was von Schleicher's idea. July 1932—Reichstag elections—NSDAP won 230 seats. Hitler requested the position of chancellor, but Hind refused.
- In November 1932, von Papen called the Reichstag elections, hoping for Nazi support. Although they did not win, they remained the largest party. Von S disapproved of the idea of holding elections and convinced Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as chancellor.
- Jan 1933: Von P was mad at Von's as he persuaded Hindenburg to dismiss him; Von P wants to get back in government, so he makes a deal with Hitter that if he persuades Hindenburg to make Hitler chancellor, then Hitler made him vice-chancellor.
→ Von P persuades Hindenburg to replace vons with Hitler and argues they could control Hitler and use him as a puppet/sigurehead. They were wrong.
- On January 30, 1933, Hitler became the new chancellor of Germany.